Decomposition of socioeconomic inequalities in fruit and vegetable consumption in Pakistan: A 20-Year analysis using copula-based decomposition

This study examines changes in fruit and vegetable consumption (FVC) across socioeconomic groups in Pakistan over two decades, using data from the Household Integrated Income and Consumption Surveys (HIICS) conducted in 1998-99 and 2018-19. Using a copula-based decomposition approach, the study disaggregates FVC inequality into structure and composition effects. The findings show an average per capita increase of 120.88 grams in FVC, with gains of 23.41, 20.86, and 153.31 grams at the 10th, 50th, and 90th percentiles, respectively. This favorable change was mainly driven by compositional effects, particularly shifts in household income, size, and education. While higher income and larger households are positively associated with FVC, the education of the household head shows a negative association, warranting further investigation. To improve dietary quality and reduce the risk of chronic disease, the findings underscore that policy efforts should focus on income enhancement, targeted nutrition education - especially for larger households - and correcting misperceptions about the health benefits of fruits and vegetables. The findings suggest that policymakers should raise household income, promote nutrition education, and introduce fair food subsidies.