Nonlinear Determinants of Innovation in Polish Start-Ups: Evidence from a Generalized Additive Model

Start-ups, as newly established firms centred on innovative ideas, rely heavily on their capacity for innovation from the earliest stages. This study examines the determinants of innovation in Polish start-ups, addressing a gap in research regarding the factors that shape innovative activity in this context. Survey data were collected from 200 Polish start-ups, and multivariate regression analysis was applied to assess both internal and external influences, including founders’ business experience, team mobility, educational background, company reputation, financial resources, partnerships, and participation in regional innovation ecosystems. Using generalized additive models, the study reveals nonlinear and saturating effects of experience and ecosystem engagement on start-up innovation. The results indicate that founders’ years of business experience and the extent of ecosystem partnerships are significant predictors of innovation. Collaborations with universities and research institutions have a stronger impact on disruptive innovation than partnerships with suppliers or clients. Access to financial resources, particularly in early stages, supports R&D activities and competitive advantage. These findings suggest that innovation drivers are context-dependent, with regional infrastructure such as incubators, educational support, and ecosystem engagement playing important roles. The study contributes to understanding how individual entrepreneurial characteristics interact with external conditions to foster innovation and provides insights for policymakers and stakeholders seeking to enhance start-up innovation and economic growth.