Brainstem Raphe Echogenicity and Insomnia in Type 2 Diabetes: An Exploratory Cross-Sectional Study

In this exploratory cross-sectional sample, reduced raphe echogenicity was not associated with overall depressive or anxiety symptom severity, but was associated with higher self-reported sleep-related symptom burden. However, this association was not robust to adjustment for sleep medication use or to correction for multiple comparisons. These findings are hypothesis-generating and require replication in larger, longitudinal and medication-naive cohorts using standardized sleep instruments.