Critical review of analytical methods for antifouling paint particles in marine systems

Antifouling paint particles (APPs) are environmental contaminants derived from the degradation of marine coatings. There is a growing concern due to their persistence and toxicity. However, research in this field is still in its infancy. In this review, the sources, sampling strategy, and analytical methods used for the detection and quantification of APPs are critically examined. Although recent studies have characterised APPs in the environment, the methodologies are limited by a lack of standardisation and exclusion of small APPs (<500 μm), which are likely the most abundant. The density and complex composition of APPs render conventional microplastic extraction methods ineffective. This review highlights the need to research advanced techniques as promising tools for the identification of APPs. Furthermore, knowledge gaps persist regarding the environmental fate and long-term accumulation of APPs in marine ecosystems. Standardised analytical workflows are urgently needed to improve the detection of APPs and assess their ecological impacts. • APPs challenge conventional microplastic extraction due to their high density and structure • Current APP quantification is biased toward particles ≥500 μm • Identification techniques lack standardisation and often rely on bulk-level confirmation • Pyr–GC/MS combined with solvent extraction emerges as a promising approach • Key analytical priorities are identified to guide method development