Reducing methane emissions from paddy fields

Abstract Rice is the staple food for more than half of the world’s population, but its cultivation under flooded conditions makes it a major anthropogenic source of methane (CH 4 ), a potent greenhouse gas. Paddy fields contribute an estimated 10–12% of global CH 4 emissions, driven by the activity of methanogenic archaea under anaerobic soil conditions and transported to the atmosphere via diffusion, ebullition, and plant-mediated pathways. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the biological and environmental drivers of CH 4 emissions from rice systems, including the roles of flooding duration, organic matter inputs, microbial community dynamics, and abiotic factors such as pH and temperature. It also examines mitigation strategies that balance productivity with emission reduction, focusing on water management practices (alternate wetting and drying, mid-season drainage, and innovative irrigation systems), organic matter management, cultivar selection and plant breeding, and nitrogen fertilizer optimization. Collectively, these approaches demonstrate substantial potential to lower CH 4 emissions without compromising yields, but their adoption is constrained by socio-economic, infrastructural, and environmental challenges. Future progress will depend on integrating genetic advances with sustainable agronomic practices, tailoring interventions to local contexts, and promoting policies that support farmer adoption.