Continuous-time modelling of black hole binary evolution with neural ODEs

ABSTRACT Pulsar timing arrays (PTAs) can detect the low-frequency stochastic gravitational-wave background (GWB) generated by an ensemble of supermassive black hole binaries (BHBs). Accurate determination of BHB merger time-scales is essential for interpreting GWBs and constraining key astrophysical quantities such as black hole (BH) occupation fractions and galaxy coalescence rates. High-accuracy N-body codes such as Griffin can resolve sub-pc BHB dynamics but are too costly to explore a wide range of initial conditions, motivating the need for surrogate models that emulate their long-term evolution at much lower computational cost. We investigate neural ordinary differential equations (NODEs) as surrogates for the secular orbital evolution of BHBs. Our primary contribution is a parametrized NODE (PNODE) trained on an ensemble of N-body simulations of galaxy mergers spanning a two-dimensional parameter space defined by the initial orbital eccentricity and particle resolution $(e_i, N)$, with the learned vector field explicitly conditioned on these parameters. A single PNODE thereby learns a simulation-parameter-conditioned dynamical model for the coupled evolution of the BH pair’s orbital state across the ensemble, yielding smooth trajectories from which stable hardening and eccentricity growth rates can be extracted. The PNODE accurately reproduces the secular evolution of the specific orbital energy and angular momentum, and the corresponding Keplerian orbital elements, for held-out trajectories, with modest generalization to a partially unseen high-resolution case. Combining PNODE predictions with semi-analytical prescriptions for stellar hardening and gravitational-wave emission yields BHB merger time-scales consistent with those obtained from direct N-body inputs within current theoretical uncertainties.