Synergistic remediation of Pb contamination in rice field soil with FeMg-LDH@Bentonite and compost: impacts on Pb bioavailability and soil environment

Overall, combined application of FMLB and compost represents an environmentally sound and potentially cost-effective strategy for remediating Pb-contaminated paddy soils while improving soil fertility and microbial function. Importantly, microbiome responses and selected enzyme endpoints are interpreted as indicators associated with Pb stabilization and improved soil condition, rather than direct evidence of microbially mediated Pb transformation.