Synergistic effects of salinity stress and pest infestation on the sustainable production of rice ( <i>Oryza sativa</i> )

Abstract Rice ( Oryza sativa ), a staple food for more than half of the world's population, is increasingly threatened by multiple abiotic and biotic stresses that interact to reduce productivity. Among these, salinity stress and insect and pest infestation are two of the most serious constraints in rice cultivation, particularly in coastal and irrigated ecosystems. Salinity impairs rice growth through osmotic stress, ionic toxicity, nutrient imbalance, and oxidative damage. Meanwhile, insect pests such as the brown planthopper, stem borer, and leaf folder further aggravate crop losses by disrupting photosynthesis, sucking plant sap, and destroying reproductive structures. Although these stresses have been studied independently, evidence suggests that their co-occurrence creates compounded damage that is greater than the sum of individual events, leading to severe instability. This dual stress interaction poses a critical challenge for global food security, especially in South and South-east Asia, where millions of smallholder farmers depend on rice for subsistence and income. Economic losses from combined salinity and pest pressure not only reduce farm profitability but also undermine resilience in already vulnerable farming communities. Addressing this issue requires integrating climate-smart and sustainable agricultural practices, including salt-tolerant and pest-resistant rice varieties, Judicious water and nutrient management, biological contents, and precision agriculture technologies. The novelty of this review lies in its focus on the combined impact of salinity stress and insect pests, an area where field-based evidence and mechanistic insights remain evident.