PVD magnetron sputtering for coating thickness reference materials: a comprehensive review (1974–2025)

Abstract This review summarizes the evolution of magnetron sputter physical vapor deposition (PVD-MS) for manufacturing thin-coating Reference Materials (RMs) over the past 5 decades. It discusses progress from fundamental models like Thornton’s Zone Diagram to modern innovations such as HiPIMS and the integration of artificial intelligence (AI). It assesses improvements in homogeneity and stability and compares PVD-MS with other methods (CVD, ALD, and ECD). It highlights its balance between precision, versatility, and scalability. It also discusses current challenges, such as defect control and the need to include surface roughness in uncertainty calculations. The article concludes that PVD-MS, especially with the support of AI, is an indispensable technology for future certified thickness standards.