Trait procrastination and future time orientation: Multi-sample tests of the stress orientation hypothesis

Theory and research characterise habitual procrastination as a temporal trait that is associated with difficulties in mood regulation and future-oriented thinking. Yet the reason why trait procrastination is linked to thinking less about the future have not been fully investigated. Guided by the stress orientation hypothesis, the current study aimed to test the role of stress in the link between procrastination and future time orientation (FTO). Across 11 samples (Total N = 4193) we meta-analysed the unadjusted and adjusted (controlling for the contributions of stress) associations between procrastination and FTO, and tested the influence of demographic, methodological, and conceptual moderators. Consistent with theory, trait procrastination was significantly and negatively associated with FTO and stress, and stress was negatively associated with FTO. When the contribution of perceived stress was accounted for, the pooled effect size was reduced from medium-to-large-sized (r avg = −0.373) to small-tomedium-sized (r avg = −0.224), suggesting an explanatory role for stress. Both sets of effects were influenced by the FTO measure and the proportion of females in the sample. These findings provide robust evidence that the stress associated with chronically procrastinating contributes to difficulties with future-oriented thinking, suggesting that stress management may have benefits for FTO.