A Unified Validation Framework for Assessing Green Skills Implementation from Basic to Vocational Education: A Measurement Invariance Approach

<ns7:p>The transition toward greener economies has heightened the need for education systems to cultivate green skills from early schooling through vocational pathways. Despite growing interest, existing assessments remain fragmented and lack validation across educational levels. This study develops and validates a unified measurement framework for assessing green skills implementation across basic, lower-secondary, and vocational education. A multi-phase quantitative design was employed, including item development, expert review, exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and multi-group measurement invariance testing. The final instrument comprised 36 items across six constructs: environmental awareness, sustainable behaviour, critical sustainability thinking, sustainability participation, resource management skills, and technical green practices. Using data from 215 students, the six-factor CFA model demonstrated excellent fit (CFI = .953; RMSEA = .052) and strong reliability and convergent validity across all constructs. Multi-group CFA supported configural and metric invariance, while partial scalar invariance was achieved after freeing four intercepts, enabling valid latent mean comparisons across educational levels. Results indicated a clear developmental progression of green skills, with foundational competencies stronger in primary education and technical competencies highest in vocational students. These findings confirm that green skills evolve along a continuum and can be measured consistently across schooling stages. The validated framework provides a robust tool for curriculum alignment, professional development, and monitoring sustainability competencies within national education systems. This study advances psychometric approaches in sustainability education and offers empirical guidance for policymakers seeking coherent strategies to support future green workforces.</ns7:p>