Pesticide impacts on honey bee foraging behaviour: a field-relevant scoping review

Abstract Honey bees ( Apis spp.) play a crucial role in agricultural productivity and ecosystem functioning through pollination. However, their foraging behaviour is increasingly affected by pesticide exposure, including insecticides, acaricides, fungicides, and herbicides. Reported effects range from adverse to negligible or even stimulatory, depending on the compound, dose, and experimental design. To support more ecologically realistic risk assessments, we conducted a targeted scoping review of 26 studies examining pesticide impacts on honey bee foraging under semi-field and field-realistic conditions. These studies were evaluated based on pesticide type, exposure route and duration, Apis species, foraging type (nectar vs. pollen), behavioural endpoint, level of observation (individual vs. colony), and proposed mechanisms. Our synthesis reveals a pronounced research bias toward neonicotinoid insecticides and Apis mellifera , with minimal investigation of other pesticide classes, chronic exposures, or non- mellifera species such as A. cerana and A. dorsata . Most studies assessed individual-level effects and nectar foraging, while colony-level endpoints and pollen foraging remain underexplored. Additionally, small and inconsistent sample sizes reduce the statistical robustness and generalisability of many findings. We identify critical gaps in current pesticide risk assessments and call for standardised experimental methodologies, including harmonised behavioural metrics, consistent dosing protocols, and endpoints that link individual- to colony-level responses. Strengthening colony-level indicators under field-realistic exposures is essential for improving the predictive power of regulatory assessments, guiding targeted mitigation strategies, and promoting more sustainable pesticide use in agroecosystems. Graphical Abstract