GLYPHOSATE TOXICITY: A REVIEW OF ITS PROPERTIES, EXPOSURE AND RISKS TO HUMAN HEALTH

Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine) is the most widely used herbicide globally, with applications exceeding 125 million kilograms annually across more than 160 countries. Its broad-spectrum efficacy and cost-effectiveness, especially in genetically modified glyphosate-tolerant crops, have made it indispensable in modern agriculture. However, its extensive use has raised concerns regarding environmental persistence and potential health effects. Although it binds strongly to soil particles, glyphosate and its main metabolite, aminomethylphosphonic acid, are frequently detected in soil, water, and, to a lesser extent, air and food. Human exposure occurs primarily through diet, environmental contact, or occupational activities. Biomonitoring studies confirm widespread low-level exposure, with glyphosate and AMPA detected in human urine samples worldwide. Toxicological and epidemiological data remain inconsistent. While the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified glyphosate as “probably carcinogenic to humans,” other agencies, including EFSA and the U.S. EPA, found no evidence of carcinogenicity. Evidence linking glyphosate exposure to non-Hodgkin lymphoma and other cancers remains inconclusive. Environmental studies highlight adverse effects on soil microorganisms, aquatic systems, and non-target species, prompting regulatory reassessment in the EU and beyond. Future research should prioritize formulation-specific toxicity, long-term biomonitoring, and mechanistic studies addressing endocrine, metabolic, and microbiome effects. Integrating toxicological, epidemiological, and environmental data will be essential for refining risk assessment, guiding sustainable weed management, and balancing glyphosate’s agricultural benefits against its potential ecological and health risks.