Molecular Crosstalk in Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Integrating Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, microRNAs, and Genetic Susceptibility Toward Precision Therapeutics

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is an increasingly prevalent source of permanent visual impairment in the aging population and is widely accepted as a multi-factorial neurodegenerative disorder of the retina. While there has been significant progress in treating neovascular AMD, there are currently no effective disease-sparing treatments for dry AMD and geographic atrophy. To date, research has begun to reveal the complex relationship between the environment and genetic predisposition in AMD pathogenesis. Various environmental factors responsible for AMD include oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, abnormal complement activation, and epigenetic regulation, which interact dynamically to drive disease progression. This review summarizes recent data and provides a comprehensive model for understanding how these interacting factors lead to the progression of AMD from an early stage to advanced stages with complications associated with the disease. We highlight the central role of retinal pigment epithelial mitochondrial failure and impaired stress resilience as upstream drivers that amplify inflammation and complement-mediated injuries. We also discuss how dysregulated miRNAs and proteomic network remodeling contribute to disease heterogeneity. Emerging therapeutic strategies are reviewed in the context of molecular endotyping and personalized intervention. Finally, we outline future directions toward precision medicine in AMD, emphasizing early disease modification, rational combination therapies, and the need to bridge the translational gaps between molecular discovery and clinical trial design.