Towards system-aware governance of marine carbon dioxide removal: a review of interdependent challenges

Marine carbon dioxide removal (mCDR) is increasingly discussed as a potential climate response, yet its governance remains underdeveloped. This study conducts a structured literature review, following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses framework, to identify and analyse governance challenges associated with mCDR within the broader context of multilateral ocean governance. Using the socio–ecological–technological systems (SETSs) framework, challenges were systematically coded to capture interdependencies across social, ecological, and technological (S/E/T) domains. The analysis of 35 peer-reviewed publications identified 100 distinct governance challenges, revealing that most cannot be categorised within single-system domains. Instead, challenges frequently span intersections between S/E/T systems, highlighting issues such as fragmented governance structures, ecological risks from technological interventions, and legitimacy concerns linked to deployment. These findings underscore the systemic nature of mCDR governance challenges and the limitations of siloed governance approaches. The study demonstrates that applying a SETS perspective enables the identification of cross-domain trade-offs, synergies, and coordination gaps, supporting the development of system-aware governance frameworks for mCDR.