Ochre and manganese pigments from the Middle Stone Age layers at Klipdrift Shelter

Abstract The use of mineral pigments is considered one of the trademarks of behavioural complexity during the Middle Stone Age in southern Africa. Though many sites report large mineral pigment assemblages during the Still Bay (ca. 71.9–71 ka BP) period, pigment behaviours during the Howieson’s Poort (HP; ca. 65–59.5 ka BP) are less understood in terms of mineral varieties, collection strategies, and associated practices. Though some previous work exists on the ochre assemblage from the HP layers at Klipdrift Shelter (KDS) specific aspects regarding the use of pigments at the site are unexplored, including the post-HP layers, in-situ ochre features at the site and the use of manganese-based pigments. Here, we provide a new synthesis on the ochre and mineral pigment assemblage from the 2011–2018 excavation seasons at KDS, including new pieces from the 2018 excavation season, the first scored ochre piece from KDS, and newly identified manganese-based pigments which are rare at MSA sites, and were likely heat-treated. This intensive and systematic investigation allows for new interpretations regarding material collection strategies, responses to environmental and climatic changes, long-distance trade and regional movement, functional uses, social signalling and group cohesion, cognitive evolution, and symbolic mediation.