Legume-based Tempeh as a Sustainable Pollen Substitute: A Comprehensive Review on Effects on Colony Performance and Foraging Activity of

Research on legume-based tempeh as a pollen substitute for Apis mellifera has demonstrated consistent benefits in supporting colony performance during periods of forage scarcity. Across multiple studies, soybean tempeh emerged as the most frequently tested substrate, showing improvements in worker morphometrics, larval development, and colony consumption patterns, particularly when combined with natural pollen or bee-specific supplements. Comparatively, mung bean tempeh proved effective in enhancing worker body weight and reducing larval mortality, while red bean tempeh demonstrated potential in lowering feed consumption and brood mortality, though formulation adjustments remain necessary to optimize its impact. Velvet bean tempeh, especially when supplemented with honey, was highlighted for its superior palatability and ability to expand brood area and productivity. Taken together, these findings suggest that the nutritional performance of tempeh-based diets depends strongly on the legume type, formulation ratios, and the inclusion of additional enhancers such as pollen, sugar, or honey. Collectively, legume-based tempeh represents a promising, low-cost, and locally available strategy to sustain honey bee colonies, offering a versatile alternative to natural pollen and supporting resilience under fluctuating environmental conditions.