Temporal invariance of Sport Emotion Questionnaire scores using exploratory structural equation modelling

The goals of this study were: (a) to explore the most effective approach to represent the factor structure of SEQ scores by employing advanced methodological techniques recently introduced in the scientific literature, including bi-factor, exploratory structural equation modelling (ESEM) and bi-factor ESEM; and (b) to examine the temporal invariance of SEQ scores using the best-fitting model previously identified. 460 athletes completed the SEQ across three measurement times to assess their emotional states experienced during competitions. Data were analyzed with a series of confirmatory factorial analysis, bi-factor, ESEM and bi-factor-ESEM. Considering the fit indices and standardized factor loadings across the three measurement points, the results indicated that ESEM could be regarded as the most suitable model for describing the factorial structure of SEQ scores. Furthermore, the findings provided evidence for the partial factor mean longitudinal invariance of SEQ. Finally, we hope these results will encourage research on longitudinal evolution of emotions across a season of sports competitions or over several seasons.