Evidence for symbolic use of ochre by MicoquianNeanderthals in Crimea

Ochre use is widely regarded as a potential marker of symbolic behavior in Paleolithic societies. We conducted amultiproxy analysis of 16 ochre pieces from Middle Paleolithic Micoquian sites in Crimea [Zaskalnaya V (ZSKV),ZSKVI, and Prolom II] and mainland Ukraine (Mukhovets), spanning up to 70,000 years. Using portable x-rayfluorescence, scanning electron microscopy coupled to energy-dispersive spectroscopy, and technological analysis,we identified deliberate modifications including grinding, scoring, flaking, and scraping. Three pieces (ZSKV-05,ZSKV-06, and ZSKV-07) show features exceeding utilitarian use: One is shaped into a crayon-liketool with repeated resharpening, another appears to be a crayon fragment, and a third bears engraved, polished surfaces. Thesetraits suggest the intentional production of marks and curated use. While practical applications (e.g., hide processing)remain plausible for other specimens, the evidence supports symbolic use among some Crimean Neanderthals.Our results highlight their cognitive complexity and underscore the importance of regional, multiproxyapproaches in evaluating the emergence of symbolic material culture.