Neuroprotective Effects of Low-Dose Graphenic Materials on SN4741 Embryonic Stem Cells Against ER Stress and MPTP-Induced Oxidative Stress

In this study, we explore the neuroprotective and modulatory potential of graphenic materials (GMs) in terms of the maturation of dopaminergic neurons and their capacity to counteract the cellular stress induced by toxins such as MPP+ (1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium) and Tunicamycin. We found that GMs promote significant morphological changes in neuronal cells after prolonged exposure, enhancing both differentiation and cellular adhesion. Through structural analysis, we unveiled a complex organization of GMs and a marked upregulation of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), a key marker of mature dopaminergic neurons. Under oxidative stress induced by MPP+, GMs significantly reduced the release of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), indicating protection against mitochondrial damage. Moreover, GMs substantially decreased the levels of α-synuclein (α-Syn), a protein closely associated with neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s disease. Notably, partially reduced graphene oxide (PRGO) and fully reduced graphene oxide (FRGO) films were particularly effective at reducing α-Syn-associated toxicity compared to positive controls. Under conditions of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress triggered by Tunicamycin, GMs—especially PRGO microflakes—modulated the unfolded protein response (UPR) pathway. This effect was evidenced by the increased expression of BIP/GRP78 and the decreased phosphorylation of stress sensors such as PERK and eIF2α; this suggests that a protective role is played against ER stress. Additionally, GMs enhanced the synthesis of Torsin 1A, a chaperone protein involved in correcting protein folding defects, with PRGO microflakes showing up to a fivefold increase relative to the controls. Through the cFos analysis, we further revealed a pre-adaptive cellular response in GM-treated cells exposed to MPP+, with PRGO microflakes inducing a significant twofold increase in cFos expression compared to the positive control, indicating partial protection against oxidative stress. In conclusion, these results underscore GMs’ capacity to modulate the critical cellular pathways involved in oxidative, mitochondrial, and ER stress responses, positioning them as promising candidates for future neuroprotective and therapeutic strategies.