Do Earlier Classroom Instructional Activities Matter in Overcoming Emerging Bilingual Children's Mathematical Difficulties? A Multilevel Analysis of Instructional Effects and First-Language Interactions

Emergent bilingual learners whose first language (L1) is Spanish and second language (L2) is English make up a large percentage of students who do not demonstrate proficiency in math. In 2024, 48% of fourth-grade students who were identified as English learners performed below basic proficiency in mathematics, compared to 21% of students who reported English as their primary language. This study investigated the relationship between instructional practices and late math difficulties (MD) in emerging bilingual children. Participants were emergent bilingual children ( N = 230) clustered within 30 classrooms in Year 1, 32 classrooms in Year 2, and 26 classrooms in Year 3. Children were divided into three groups: Children with persistent MD ( n = 46), children with late MD ( n = 109), and average achievers ( n = 75). A cross-level multilevel logistic model examined the extent to which the dosage or type of math instructional activities in Year 1 and Year 2 moderated the likelihood that average achievers and children with persistent MD varied from children with late MD at Year 3. At the student level, the likelihood of group differences in Year 3 was significantly related to earlier performance on Spanish measures of problem-solving, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. Direct instructional effects on the likelihood of later MD, independent of student characteristics, were related to the frequency of in-class activities that included guided practice and peer-to-peer interactions. Furthermore, the influence of early L1 achievement measures (i.e., problem-solving, comprehension, vocabulary) on later math achievement was moderated by guided practice, peer interactions, and fluency training. The results suggest that the frequency of instructional practices can reduce the occurrence of later MD in emerging bilingual children.