Livelihood strategies and NTFP utlisation among rural female-headed households in Limpopo Province, South Africa

• Assesses how NTFP use supports livelihoods of 240 female-headed households in Limpopo. • Larger households with stronger social networks show higher NTFPs utilisation. • NTFP income substitutes crop and livestock income but complements grants and remittances. • NTFP use remains a key livelihood strategy alongside other income sources. • Policy should strengthen sustainable management, skills development, and market access. Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) play a crucial role in the livelihoods of female-headed households in rural South Africa, though level of utilisation varies. While research highlights their significance, few studies examine how local agro-ecological conditions shape income sources and trade-offs between agriculture and NTFP collection. This study draws on household survey data collected from 240 female-headed households in Limpopo Province. Using the sustainable livelihood framework, households were grouped into livelihood clusters based on NTFP income shares, and the determinants of NTFP utilisation were analyzed with a Multinomial Logit (MNL) regression model. Spearman’s rank correlation revealed a negative association between NTFP income and crop, livestock, and wage income but a positive association with social grants and remittances. One-way ANOVA indicated no significant differences in total income across livelihood clusters, suggesting that NTFPs primarily supplement rather than determine household income, with social grants and remittances buffering variations in utilisation. In contrast, crop and livestock income play a smaller role in these household livelihood strategies based on varying levels of NTFP utilisation. Overall, the findings affirm that NTFP collection remains a key livelihood strategy for female-headed households, complementing other income sources. Policies promoting sustainable forest management, capacity building, and improved market access should recognize and support NTFP collection to enhance rural livelihoods. Further research should examine non-income factors, including livelihood stability, resilience, and the long-term sustainability of NTFP-based livelihoods.