Impact of non-1D Earth on FDEM measurements and the performance of PWI and LCI Inversions

Subsurface electrical conductivity models from frequency-domain electromagnetic (FDEM) induction measurements are often derived using computationally efficient one-dimensional piecewise inversion (PWI) approaches. However, PWI does not account for lateral conductivity variations or the measurement overlap between adjacent soundings, which can limit model estimation accuracy. Laterally constrained inversion (LCI) introduces smoothness constraints to reduce lateral variability between neighboring models, potentially improving continuity. In this study, both PWI and LCI use a 1D forward function, assuming a horizontally layered earth, and a horizontally laying rigid boom instrument, to perform the estimations This study presents a detailed analysis of how various 2.5D and 3D conductivity distributions, including topographic variations and instrument pitch angle, affect FDEM measurements. We examine how these measurement distortions propagate into PWI and LCI inversion results. Under ideal conditions, such as flat terrain, no instrument tilt, and simple two-layer models, both methods recover accurate conductivity structures, with LCI offering little advantage in accuracy. When topography is introduced, however, distortions occur even at slopes as small as 2 °, and both methods show degraded performance, particularly in 3D scenarios. In the field example, LCI produces smoother and more stable results than PWI in the presence of noise, but its assumption of lateral smoothness can be restrictive in geologically complex settings. Our findings show that both inversion strategies are sensitive to topographic and 3D effects, and that error propagation significantly influences inversion reliability. These results highlight the need for improved methodologies capable of handling realistic acquisition conditions and measurement uncertainties in FDEM surveys. • Quantifies the impact of topography, instrument tilt, and 3D conductivity variations on FDEM measurements, showing that distortions occur even at topography dip or pitch angle, as small as 2 °. • Compares PWI and LCI performance using a 1D forward function, assuming ideal acquisition conditions, to invert 3D distributions of electrical conductivity with different instrument and subsurface geometries. • Demonstrates the role of error propagation in inversion reliability, emphasizing the limitations of current 1D-based methods in complex geological and topographic settings.