Design, presence, and perception: An exploratory path analysis of nighttime safety perceptions in urban parks

Perceived safety during nighttime park use is a key factor influencing individuals’ decisions to visit parks. However, few systematic analyses examine how place-based characteristics (e.g., locational context, developmental background, surrounding environment, and proximity to residential areas) affect safety perceptions. Additionally, research has largely overlooked how interactions between physical and social factors within and around parks influence these perceptions. This study analyzed the physical and social environmental factors affecting nighttime safety in urban parks, focusing on the structural relationships among locational, surrounding, and internal environments. Field surveys were conducted with visitors to two urban parks in Jeonju, South Korea, after sunset. The parks differed in locational and environmental characteristics. Researchers collected 487 valid responses and analyzed the data using correlation analysis, multiple regression, and exploratory path analysis (EPA). The results showed that locational and surrounding environments, along with related contextual factors, influenced both physical and social environmental factors. EPA identified structural relationships not previously found in conventional analyses. Visibility and lighting had fundamental effects on several physical environmental elements, while locational factors and the surrounding environment more strongly influenced social factors. Additionally, depending on locational and environmental characteristics, social factors such as the presence of strangers, patrols, and intoxicated individuals had varying effects on nighttime safety. These findings highlight the need to move beyond a fragmented approach to nighttime safety and support comprehensive strategies that address both the internal environment of parks and their location and surrounding context. In addition, by emphasizing the importance of social approaches (such as building social cohesion, increasing place familiarity, and applying social design strategies), this study offers important insight for promoting safer nighttime use of urban parks. • Postsunset survey of 487 respondents in two urban parks with contrasting contexts • Lighting, vegetation maintenance, and visibility affected perceived nighttime safety • Social factors showed contrasting effects on nighttime safety between the two parks • Findings support integrated strategies across interior, location, and surroundings