Efficacy of Temporal Interference Stimulation in Human Studies: A Systematic Review

Temporal interference stimulation (TIS), a noninvasive neuromodulation method based on electromagnetic waves, enables selective stimulation of deep brain regions through the interference of high-frequency electrical currents. This systematic review evaluated the efficacy and safety of TIS and included studies that directly applied stimulation to human participants and achieved functional or behavioral outcomes. A comprehensive database search across Embase, IEEE Xplore, PubMed, and Web of Science identified 23 eligible studies (852 participants in total) published between 2017 and March 2025. Most studies involved healthy adults, while others targeted individuals with obstructive sleep apnea, major depressive disorder, Parkinson’s disease, essential tremor, and traumatic brain injury. These studies reported consistent improvements in motor performance domains, such as reaction time, movement accuracy, and motor learning. Furthermore, improvements in cognitive function were observed, particularly in working memory and spatial navigation, although the results varied due to differences in stimulation protocols and assessment tasks. Most studies reported TIS to be safe, with minimal adverse effects primarily limited to skin irritation and no serious neurological or psychological complications. TIS holds considerable potential as a clinical intervention. However, future research should prioritize standardized stimulation protocols, long-term follow-up, and investigations across diverse neurological and psychiatric patient populations to better establish its efficacy and generalizability.