Urban parks as nature-based infrastructure for climate resilient tropical cities: Insights from cooling, carbon, and culture

Rapid urbanization in tropical cities intensifies heat exposure while constraining opportunities for carbon storage, yet little is known about how the climate-regulating functions of small urban parks vary with park structure or whether these functions are recognized by park users. This study addresses this gap by examining nine urban parks in Surabaya, Malang, and Pasuruan (Indonesia), linking biophysically measured cooling and carbon functions with user perceptions. We used downscaled Landsat land surface temperature (10 m resolution), field-based vegetation and soil measurements, and visitor surveys ( N = 243). Cooling intensity (CI) and cooling distance (CD) were derived from ΔT–distance relationships, aboveground biomass carbon was estimated using allometric equations, and soil organic carbon (SOC; 0–60 cm) was quantified from soil sampling and pedotransfer functions. The results show that parks can generate strong local cooling, with CI reaching up to 6.9 °C, although cooling effects typically extend only about 50–80 m beyond park edges, indicating a clear separation between cooling magnitude and spatial reach. Carbon storage varied widely across parks: tree-dense sites accumulated disproportionately high aboveground biomass carbon (approximately 6–108 Mg C ha −1 ), while SOC stocks ranged between about 107 and 127 Mg C ha −1 . Cooling performance was closely associated with park perimeter, whereas tree density emerged as the dominant driver of biomass carbon, revealing the role of vegetation structure. Survey responses reveal a consistent perception–performance gap. While users readily recognize cooling and visible greenery, carbon-related functions—particularly soil carbon—are weakly perceived, even in parks with high measured carbon stocks. By explicitly linking park structure, measured climate functions, and user perceptions, this study shows that small tropical urban parks can contribute to both climate adaptation and mitigation, but their effectiveness depends not only on biophysical design and management, but also on the social legibility of less visible ecosystem functions. • Tropical urban parks deliver combined cooling, carbon, and cultural services. • Tree-dominated parks show the strongest synergies across ecological and social benefits. • Cooling benefits are highly valued by visitors as the primary ecological services • Soil organic carbon is a major, often overlooked, carbon pool in tropical park systems. • Findings support nature-based planning for resilient and climate-smart tropical cities.