Analysis of rainfall and temperature trends inEswatini from 1981 to 2020: A perspective ofclimate change and variability

Rainfall and temperature are key climatic indicators essential for monitoring climate variability and change. Understanding long-term trends in these parameters is crucial for evidence-based policy formulation, particularly in vulnerable regions. We examined rainfall and temperature trends in Eswatini over a 40-year period (1981–2020) using meteorological data from five physiographic regions. Trends in monthly, seasonal and annual rainfall, alongside minimum and maximum temperatures, were analysed using the Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimator. The results reveal high interannual variability and shifting seasonal precipitation patterns, with an overall decline in annual rainfall. Statistically significant declines were noted in June and October, especially in the Lowveld and Highveld regions, whereas certain summer months (December to February) recorded increasing rainfall trends at some stations. Temperature analysis indicated significant warming trends in maximum temperature at four stations (Big Bend, Mbabane, Malkerns and Nhlangano), with increases in minimum temperature most evident in Mbabane and Big Bend. A cooling trend was observed at Mhlume in the Western Lowveld, highlighting geographic temperature variability. These findings align with regional studies that have reported increased climate variability across southern Africa. The results emphasise the urgency of implementing adaptive strategies, including improved water resource management and the development of early warning systems. This research provides a foundation for informed climate policy interventions in Eswatini.