Conjunctival transforming growth factor-β2 and vascular endothelial growth factor in canine keratoconjunctivitis sicca: Baseline alterations, clinical associations, and response to 0.2% cyclosporine therapy

Topical 0.2% CsA improves tear production, GCD restoration, and various clinical signs in canine KCS. TGF-β2 seems to have a pro-inflammatory and profibrotic role, increasing with disease severity and linked to chronic ocular surface changes. CsA effectively decreases VEGF, especially in severe KCS, indicating partial modulation of angiogenic pathways. Longer treatment durations may be necessary to influence TGF-β2-mediated tissue remodeling.