Towards precise and real-time immunodiagnostics through electrochemical sensing of immune checkpoint proteins

Immune checkpoint proteins are essential biomarkers, especially for guiding response to immunotherapy. Conventional detection methods, such as IHC, flow cytometry, and ELISA, provide accuracy yet are invasive, time-consuming, and unsuitable for real-time monitoring. Electrochemical biosensors present a promising alternative, offering rapid, sensitive, and minimally invasive detection with potential for POC applications. Recent advances have exploited nanostructured materials to enhance electroconductivity, sensitivity, and antifouling properties. Meanwhile, engineered receptors enhance biorecognition stability and orientation. Notwithstanding these advances, challenges persist, including performance loss in complex matrices, nonspecific binding, and limited multiplexing capabilities. Future progress lies in developing label-free sensing modes, multiplexed platforms, and integration with microfluidics, wearables, and AI-driven analytics. Clinical validation, standardization, and scalable fabrication are critical for translation. Overall, electrochemical checkpoint protein sensors hold strong potential to advance precision immunodiagnostics and enable accessible, future real-time cancer monitoring.