Non-local thermodynamical equilibrium atmospheric modelling of the ultra-hot Jupiter WASP-178b and comparison with UV and optical observations

Aims. We model the atmosphere of the ultra-hot Jupiter (UHJ) WASP-178b while accounting for non-local thermodynamical equilibrium (NLTE) effects and compare synthetic transmission spectra with near-ultraviolet (NUV) and optical observations. Methods. We used the HELIOS code (LTE) in the lower atmosphere and the ClOUDY code (LTE or NLTE) in the middle and upper atmosphere to compute the temperature-pressure (TP) and abundance profiles. We further used C<ns0:sc>LOUDY</ns0:sc> to compute the theoretical planetary transmission spectrum both in LTE and NLTE for comparison with observations. Results. We find an isothermal TP profile at pressures higher than 10 mbar and lower than 10−8 bar, with an almost linear increase from ∼2200 K to ∼8100 K in between. The temperature structure is driven by NLTE effects, particularly in the form of increased heating resulting from the overpopulation of long-lived Fe<ns0:sc>II</ns0:sc> levels with strong transitions in the NUV band, where the stellar emission is strong, and of decreased cooling due to the underpopulation of Mg<ns0:sc>I</ns0:sc> and Mg<ns0:sc>II</ns0:sc> levels that dominate the cooling. The planetary atmosphere is hydrostatic up to pressures of ∼1 nbar, and thus accurately modelling spectral lines forming at pressures lower than ∼1 nbar requires accounting for both hydrodynamics and NLTE effects. The NLTE synthetic transmission spectrum overestimates the observed Hα and Hβ absorption, while the LTE model is in good agreement, which is surprising because the opposite has been found for the other UHJs for which NLTE modelling has been performed. In the NUV, we find an excellent match between the NLTE transmission spectrum and the HST/UVIS data, contrary to the LTE model. This contrasts with previous LTE results requiring SiO absorption to fit the observations. Conclusions. The accurate characterisation of the atmosphere of UHJs is possible only when accounting for NLTE effects and particularly for the level population of Fe and Mg, which respectively dominate heating and cooling.