Glacial lakes and GLOFs in a warming Himalaya-Karakoram region: current understanding, challenges, and the way forward

The cryosphere of the Himalaya–Karakoram is rapidly retreating under climate change, leading to widespread formation and expansion of glacial lakes and increasing the risk of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). To date, more than 388 GLOF events have been documented in the region, primarily from moraine- and ice-dammed lakes, with the highest frequency reported in the Karakoram, followed by the Central and Eastern Himalaya. Ice avalanches and extreme precipitation are the most common triggers. Growing exposure of settlements and infrastructure amplifies impacts, highlighting the need to integrate physical science with social vulnerability, preparedness, and adaptation strategies.