Inorganic and organic halamine formation mechanisms and reactivity in water disinfection: recent developments

Inorganic and organic halamines, characterized by a minimum of one nitrogen-halogen (N–X) bond, have received increased attention in water treatment due to their formation during disinfection, limited understanding of their reactivity, and potential taste and odour impacts on drinking water. Understanding the formation mechanisms of N -halamines and their role in toxic disinfection by-product (DBP) formation is crucial for devising DBP control strategies. This review highlights recent studies (2021-2025) that investigated formation mechanisms and reactivity of inorganic and organic halamines, including inorganic chloramines, N -halamines, N -halamides, and N -halamino acids.