Sustainable digital transformation in training: evaluating manuals, tablets, and smart glasses for procedural guidance in an assembling process

Abstract This study explores how different instructional formats, such as printed manuals, tablets, and smart glasses, affect training efficiency and sustainability within a procedural assembly task. As industries and educational institutions pursue sustainable digital transformation, traditional printed manuals are increasingly being replaced by digital and wearable systems that offer scalability, adaptability, and reduced material use. Thirty-three participants performed a standardized twelve-step assembly task using one of the three modalities. Results showed that smart glasses yielded the highest task efficiency and lowest error rates, while tablets received the most favorable usability ratings due to participants’ familiarity with touchscreen interfaces. Printed manuals performed the worst, causing frequent workflow interruptions and greater cognitive demand. Qualitative feedback supported these findings, highlighting that hands-free, adaptive digital guidance promotes smoother task flow and less dependence on static, resource-intensive materials. Overall, the study demonstrates that digital and wearable instructional systems not only enhance immediate performance outcomes but also support long-term sustainability goals and alignment with Industry 4.0 practices. The findings provide empirical evidence for the benefits of digital training tools and offer practical guidance for organizations aiming to develop scalable, efficient, and environmentally responsible instructional strategies.