Smart Bioaerosol Monitoring: Advanced Sampling and Sensing across Environmental, Clinical, and Industrial Domains

Bioaerosols are microorganisms in the air, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or allergens. Their concentration and health risks are increasing due to the current pandemic and rising pollution in cities. They are hard to control and eliminate because of their diversity, fluctuating concentrations, and changing environments they inhabit. Recent progress in materials science, nanotechnology, and sensor engineering has led to the development of more advanced, faster, and more reliable bioaerosol detection systems. This review covers current trends in bioaerosol capture and detection, focusing on multifunctional porous materials and real-time analysis. For example, materials engineered with metals, pores, or active surfaces can trap airborne microbes and neutralize them through photocatalytic or oxidative reactions, including metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), covalent organic frameworks (COFs), and carbon-based nanostructures. Highly efficient, self-disinfecting filtration membranes treated with antimicrobials like silver nanoparticles, TiO₂, and enzymes are also in use. Detection technology is similarly transformative. Optical methods such as dynamic light scattering (DLS), multiwavelength fluorescence spectroscopy (MFS), and hyperspectral imaging (HSI) enable real-time, noninvasive monitoring of microbes. Likewise, electrochemical biosensors enhanced with aptamers, antibodies, and nanomaterials offer increased sensitivity, portability for on-site testing, and the ability to detect very low pathogen levels. Access to personalized environmental health monitoring is now feasible through integrated platforms in wearable and smart infrastructure. Despite these advancements, challenges such as environmental variability, false positives, and sensor lifespan remain. This review discusses how these issues arise and explores future trends in biosensor design, data integration, and standardization.