Education, Employment, Income, and Urban–Rural Differences as Drivers of Social Inequalities in Environmental Exposures: Evidence from the UK Biobank

This study investigates the social patterning of environmental exposures, examining how three socioeconomic position dimensions influence exposure to air pollution, road traffic noise, and availability of green spaces, in both urban and rural areas in England, Scotland, and Wales. Using data from the UK Biobank cohort study, we assessed associations between three individual markers of socioeconomic position: educational attainment, household income, and employment status, and three environmental exposure domains: residential airborne pollutants, residential road traffic noise, and residential green and blue space. In urban areas, participants with lower educational attainment, lower household income, or those who were unemployed exhibit a higher exposure to airborne pollutants. Household income also influences the vicinity to green spaces and natural environments, with lower incomes experiencing less green and natural environments in both the rural and urban contexts. Retired individuals experienced lower exposure to airborne pollutants and lived in areas with more green spaces or natural environments compared with employed individuals. These patterns were consistent across England, Scotland, and Wales, although some geographical and national differences were observed. The study highlights the complex interplay among socioeconomic factors, geographical location, and environmental exposures. Our findings suggest that socioeconomic position is a key determinant of specific external exposomes, with socioeconomically disadvantaged groups experiencing more adverse environmental conditions.