Iron modulation drives biofilm formation and virulence enzyme production in emerging clinical Candida species: implications for diagnostics and therapeutics

Iron differentially influences virulence-associated traits (biofilm-related enzyme activities) and antifungal resistance across these <i>Candida</i> species. <i>C. utilis</i> exhibits iron-responsive increases in phospholipase and proteinase activities together with amplified azole resistance, while <i>C. auris</i> shows iron-linked enhancement of echinocandin resistance and sustained expression of key virulence-associated enzymes. These results underscore the importance of accounting for host iron levels and species-specific responses when managing candidemia and indicate the potential for therapies targeting iron.