Determination of interfacial heat transfer coefficient between bronze and loess-based molds in Bronze Age China

In early Chinese civilization loess-based clay mold technology was instrumental to both the mass production of ritual bronzes and the development of metallurgical traditions. A comprehensive understanding of ancient Chinese bronze casting technology requires quantitative investigations into the functional performance of clay molds. Building on measurements of the thermophysical parameters of clay molds unearthed at a Western Zhou-period bronze foundry, this study establishes a one-dimensional unsteady heat transfer model. By combining this model with experiments to monitor the temperature of flat-plate molds, and Beck’s nonlinear estimation with supporting data validation, the interfacial heat transfer coefficient between bronze alloy and clay molds during the casting process is derived for the first time. This study provides accurate parameters for conducting numerical simulations on bronze casting processes and functionality by focusing on the quantitative analysis of casting performance, and establishes a methodological framework to address pivotal archaeometallurgical questions for future studies.