Synergies between potential key geoheritage areas (KGAs) and key biodiversity areas (KBAs) in Spain and Scotland: Toward a holistic nature conservation framework

• KGAs and KBAs show strong spatial and functional links in Spain and Scotland. • 78% of Spanish KGAs are fully contained within existing KBAs. • All globally important Scottish KBAs show functional geoheritage support. • Geodiversity shapes key habitats for protected species in both countries. • Integrating geoheritage enhances biodiversity conservation effectiveness. Geodiversity provides the abiotic foundation that shapes ecosystems and supports biodiversity. However, its role in conservation planning remains underrepresented. This study investigates spatial overlaps and functional linkages between potential Key Geoheritage Areas (KGAs) and Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) in Spain and Scotland, aiming to promote a more integrated conservation framework. Using national geosite inventories and the World Database of KBAs, we conducted spatial analyses and inferred ecological dependencies based on geological features and habitat data. In Spain, 78% of the surface area of potential KGAs lies entirely within KBAs, despite KGAs covering only 1.7% of the total KBA area. These KGAs include volcanic, karstic, coastal, and tectonic systems that underpin habitats for protected species. In Scotland, all 40 globally important KBAs show inferred functional links to geoheritage, particularly through coastal geomorphology, soils, and hydrological systems supporting seabird and wetland species. The results demonstrate that co-located KGAs and KBAs offer opportunities for integrated management, enhancing conservation effectiveness by recognizing the interdependence of abiotic and biotic systems. This innovative framework supports holistic conservation strategies, especially under climate change and land-use pressures. The study highlights the need for interdisciplinary approaches and skilled practitioners capable of managing both biodiversity and geoheritage within protected areas.