Effect of intelligent tutoring system-delivered scaffolding on mathematics progression: A multivariate study by school type and gender

This study examined the effects of intelligent tutoring system-delivered scaffolding (ITS-DS) on students' learning progression in the Geometry and Algebra Strand, emphasizing both procedural fluency and conceptual understanding while controlling initial proficiency. A randomized controlled trial with a 2 × 3 × 2 factorial design involved 792 Grade 7 students from special program, regular, and border schools in Thailand. Students were assigned to conditions with or without scaffolding feedback. Learning outcomes were assessed using the Mathematical Procedures (MAP) and Structure of observed Learning Outcomes (SLO) frameworks. Pre- and post-test data were analyzed through multivariate methods using MANCOVA and mixed-design ANOVA. The results revealed significant main effects for scaffolding (Wilks' Λ = .941, p < .001), school type (Wilks’ Λ = .73, p < .001), and time (MAP: η2 = .43; SLO: η2 = .40). Interaction effects indicated that the impact of scaffolding varied across school types and between sexes. Students from border and special schools demonstrated the most significant improvements, particularly under scaffolded conditions. Female students showed greater gains in conceptual understanding, suggesting that ITS scaffolding effectively supported spatial and symbolic reasoning in geometry and algebra. These findings provide strong evidence that context-sensitive and gender-responsive scaffolding through ITS can enhance mathematics learning across diverse educational settings.