The observed evolution of Arctic amplification over the past 45 years

Abstract. To address research gaps in understanding Arctic Amplification, we use data from ERA5, an observational surface temperature dataset, and sea ice concentration to examine the seasonal, spatial and decadal evolution of Arctic 2 m and lower tropospheric temperatures and lower tropospheric (surface to 850 hPa) static stability over the past 45 years. A Local Amplification Anomaly (LAA) metric is used to examine how spatial patterns of Arctic 2 m temperature anomalies compare to anomalies for the globe as a whole. Pointing to impacts of seasonally-delayed albedo feedback, growing areas of end-of-summer (September) open water largely co-locate with the strongest positive anomalies of 2 m temperatures through autumn and winter and their growth through time; small summer trends reflect the effects of a melting sea ice cover. Because of seasonal ice growth, the association between rising 2 m temperatures and sea ice weakens from autumn into winter, except in the Barents Sea where there have been prominent downward trends in winter ice extent. Imprints of variable atmospheric circulation are prominent in the Arctic temperature evolution. Low-level (surface to 850 hPa) stability over the Arctic increases from autumn through winter, consistent with the greater depth of surface-based atmospheric heating seen in autumn. However, trends towards weaker static stability dominate the Arctic Ocean in autumn and winter, especially over areas of September and wintertime ice loss. Sea ice thinning, leading to increased conductive heat fluxes though the ice, likely also contributes to reduced stability.