Spatiotemporal patterns of behavior by long-tailed macaques Macaca fascicularis (Raffles 1821) in a human-modified environment

Residential expansion continues to reshape non-human primate habitats, leading to novel human-macaque interactions. In this study, we examined the spatiotemporal behavioral patterns of long-tailed macaques (LTM; Macaca fascicularis) in a human-modified environment in North Cotabato, Philippines. We recorded LTM behaviors across a 12-h window (6:00 AM to 6:00 PM), with 270.5 h of observations spanning 29 days across three fieldwork sessions. We conducted hotspot and emerging hotspot analyses to identify spatiotemporal trends of their most frequently observed behaviors–feeding, foraging, grooming, resting, and moving. Distinct diurnal rhythms were observed. Early in the day, LTMs shifted from built-up areas to forest–agricultural mosaic (FAM) zones to forage and feed, with foraging peaking at 8:00–9:00 AM before declining. Later, they returned to built-up areas, increasing resting and grooming, with grooming peaking between 4:00 and 5:00 PM. Feeding, grooming, and resting were spatially clustered in close proximity within built-up areas, while foraging occurred over broader distances, particularly in FAM zones. These spatiotemporal variations across landscape types support our hypothesis that human activities and structure influence LTM behaviors. Despite regular food provisioning, our study also showed that LTMs continued to forage natural food sources demonstrating their behavioral plasticity and the need to consider both natural and built-up environments in conservation planning. Spatiotemporal tools enable identification of LTM behavioral hotspots and activity patterns, providing a robust framework to guide sustainable human-macaque coexistence strategies. Future research should explore how tourism and environmental factors like predator presence and food distribution influence LTM space use in human-modified habitats.