Paternal Diet, Physical Activity, and Lifestyle as Determinants of Placental Development and Offspring Health: A literature review

For decades, paternal health was considered largely irrelevant to pregnancy outcomes, with scientific and clinical attention focused almost exclusively on maternal physiology. This perspective has shifted markedly over the past fifteen years. A growing body of evidence now indicates that paternal diet, physical activity, metabolic status, and broader lifestyle factors exert measurable influences on embryonic development, placental function, and long-term offspring health. These effects are mediated through multiple biological pathways, including sperm DNA methylation, histone retention, small non-coding RNAs, seminal plasma signaling, and immune–metabolic interactions at the time of implantation. Human studies demonstrate that paternal obesity and poor metabolic health are associated with altered sperm epigenetic profiles, dysregulation of imprinted genes such as IGF2, and increased risks of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Experimental models further reveal that paternal dietary imbalance—both undernutrition and overnutrition—can impair placental vascularization, induce hypoxia, and program sex-specific metabolic phenotypes in offspring. Conversely, paternal physical activity appears capable of partially counteracting diet-induced epigenetic disruptions, improving offspring metabolic health via modifications of the sperm RNA payload. This narrative review synthesizes evidence from human observational studies, controlled animal experiments, and mechanistic epigenetic research to examine how paternal diet, exercise, and lifestyle shape placental development and offspring health. Particular attention is given to the relevance of these findings for sport science and public health, highlighting paternal preconception health as a modifiable determinant of developmental outcomes.