Developing and Validating a Campus Physical Environment Satisfaction Scale for Chinese Private Universities: Case Study of Guangdong Province

The rapid expansion of private universities in the past a few decades has created a unique sector in Chinese higher education system. Unlike public research-oriented institutions, Chinese private universities are tuition-dependent, resource-constrained, and primarily vocation-oriented. Lacking the prestige of academics, the campus physical environment in these institutions becomes a key strategic asset for student recruitment, retention, and performance. However, academic research addressing these contexts remains scarce. This study aims to develop a reliable measurement tool—the University Campus Environment Satisfaction Scale (UCESS)—specifically tailored to assess student satisfaction with the physical environment in Chinese private universities. Based on 1050 valid questionnaires from 4 representative universities in Guangdong province, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed a hierarchical structure comprising 10 first-order factors and 3 second-order dimensions: (1) Safety and accessibility; (2) Core living and learning environment; and (3) Developmental and amenity resources. The findings reveal that students in Chinese private universities prioritize tangible living, teaching and safety conditions over higher-level developmental amenities, reflecting a layered satisfaction logic. Furthermore, this study demonstrates the differentially weighted relationships between campus elements and overall campus satisfaction, providing administrators with a scientific diagnostic tool to optimize resource allocation and implement student-centered planning strategies.