Greenspace and air pollution disparities in urban Northern England

Urban environmental inequalities remain a critical public health concern in the UK, particularly in regions with legacies of industrial development. This study examines the spatial distribution of air pollution (NO₂) and greenspace exposure across ten cities in Northern England, focusing on urban neighborhoods. Using Lower-layer Super Output Areas (LSOAs) and data from the Access to Healthy Assets & Hazards and Index of Multiple Deprivation, we compare environmental burdens across two city types: large, industrial-era conurbations (Major cities) and smaller cities more influence by rural-to-urban transition (Regional cities). Our results show that in urban areas of Major cities, deprived and ethnically diverse communities face significantly higher NO₂ concentrations and lower NDVI, a measure of greenspace density and health, despite physical proximity to green areas. In the most deprived LSOAs, NO₂ levels are 33 % higher than in the least deprived, more than twice the national average disparity. While greenspace accessibility is often greater in deprived areas, these spaces are frequently located near major roads or pollution hotspots, limiting their health benefits. About 83 % of the most vegetated urban areas in Major cities still exceed WHO NO₂ guidelines, highlighting the limited capacity of greenspace alone to mitigate pollution in dense, traffic-dominated environments. In contrast, urban areas in Regional cities show lower pollution and more consistent greenspace provision, with fewer social disparities. These findings highlight the need for targeted, locally informed strategies that combine green infrastructure with robust emissions reduction, particularly in cities with dense industrial legacies. As the UK seeks to deliver on the goals of its Clean Air Strategy and 25-Year Environment Plan, understanding how environmental burdens are associated with social inequality and urban form at the local level will be essential for designing fairer, healthier cities and meeting broader Agenda 2030 commitments.