Three‑dimensional culture of tumor cells (Review)

While conventional two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures and animal models have been cornerstone technologies in cancer research, they possess limitations in replicating human tumor pathophysiology. Notably, 2D models fail to capture key tissue-level architecture and cell-cell interactions, whereas animal models are often constrained by species-specific discrepancies and high costs, which limits their applicability in investigating precise human tumor mechanisms. To overcome these shortcomings, three-dimensional (3D) tumor models have emerged as a powerful complementary platform. The present review comprehensively explores the unique capabilities of 3D models in maintaining tumor heterogeneity, simulating the dynamic tumor microenvironment and accelerating high-throughput drug screening. The present review also highlights the transformative potential of 3D models in personalized medicine and in deciphering the mechanisms underlying metastasis. Finally, the present review proposes a visionary roadmap for <i>in vitro</i> 3D model innovation, with the goal of guiding their effective translation from foundational research to clinical decision-making in the future.