Revealing the environmental fate of ciprofloxacin in pharmaceutical effluent through UV/O3 degradation tracked by LC-MS/MS and assessed using a risk-based sustainability framework

Antibiotic contamination from pharmaceutical industrial effluent poses a growing environmental problem due to the persistence and ecotoxicity of these compounds. This study provides a detailed evaluation of ciprofloxacin, a frequently found antibiotic in Indonesian pharmaceutical effluent, by using a combined method that includes advanced testing techniques, treatment for breaking it down, life cycle analysis, and toxicity predictions about it. Ciprofloxacin was found and measured using a carefully tested liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) method, which used a BEH C18 column and was improved with a water–acetonitrile mixture and 16 eV collision energy. The method exhibited excellent performance with linearity (R 2 > 0.999), recovery (98–102%), a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.29 mg/L, and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 0.97 mg/L. UV/O 3 treatment achieved >90% ciprofloxacin removal in real pharmaceutical effluent. LCA results revealed a 58% reduction in eutrophication potential and a 43% decrease in aquatic toxicity burden, with chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) as key impact drivers. Despite the treatment’s efficiency, predictive modeling using the Toxicity Estimation Software Tool (T.E.S.T.) indicated that ciprofloxacin remains mutagenic and developmentally toxic, with a low bioaccumulation factor (BCF = 10.95). This study demonstrates that UV/O 3 is a useful and eco-friendly method for cleaning effluent containing antibiotics, and it also provides a means to evaluate how new treatments impact the environment. Additionally, the findings highlight the necessity of combining advanced treatments with environmental impact assessments to inform safer waste management strategies in the pharmaceutical industry. • LC–MS/MS enabled quantification of ciprofloxacin in pharmaceutical effluents. • UV/O 3 achieved >90% ciprofloxacin removal with detectable ecotoxicity signals. • Risk quotient analysis yielded values exceeding unity (RQ > 1). • LCA indicated reduced eutrophication and aquatic toxicity impacts. • UV/O 3 performance highlights the role of post-polishing in effluent treatment.