How can maritime automation and autonomy be safely implemented? A mixed-method topic model

Abstract Trust in autonomous vessels (TiA) is important for human–automation teaming as it facilitates the safe operation of automated and autonomous systems. An adequate level of TiA is crucial for the acceptance of maritime autonomous surface vessels (MASS) and the recruitment of competent maritime professionals to the industry. However, seafarers seem to exhibit a low TiA, and the knowledge about why this is the case is scarce. In this study, we investigated the factors that seafarers deem as important for safe automation, through a mixed-method analysis of 1,009 bridge officers’ free-text responses in a questionnaire that was distributed to seafarers on Norwegian ships in 2023. By means of a combination of qualitative coding and structural topic modeling (STM), we constructed 12 topics. The findings show that seafarers are concerned about the total sociotechnical system of the MASS, especially for automation reliability and redundancy, and seafarers strongly call for human presence, oversight, and control. We map topics to aspects of trust in automation and compare the findings with state-of-the-art topics in the academic discourse. Finally, practical implications for increasing TiA are provided, as well as a methodological discussion.