Profiling, Distribution, and Risk Assessment of Parabens in Groundwater Near Dumpsites

Over two billion people globally are predisposed to leachate infiltration of endocrine-disrupting compounds in groundwater sources, with parabens receiving great attention due to their widespread industrial applications. This study assessed the profiling, seasonal variability, and associated risks of five parabens: methyl (MeP), ethyl (EtP), propyl (PrP), butyl (BuP), and methyl-3,5-dichloro (McP) parabens in groundwater sources near dumpsites across rural and urban areas of Osun, Oyo, and Lagos States in Southwestern Nigeria. Samples were collected during the rainy and dry seasons. MeP and McP were the most prevalent parabens, with detection frequencies across the three states following this trend: MeP > McP > PrP > EtP > BuP. Seasonal average concentrations of parabens in GW were the highest in Osun State (45.52 mg/L rural/29.40 mg/L urban), followed by Oyo State (35.81 mg/L rural/22.26 mg/L urban), and Lagos State, which had the least (21.10 mg/L rural/28.24 mg/L urban). Concentrations were considerably higher during the dry season, possibly due to lower water tables and limited dilution. No notable difference was observed between rural and urban concentrations of paraben in groundwater samples, suggesting uniform exposure in both settings. Principal component analysis revealed similar anthropogenic influences, as indicated by the close clustering of paraben compounds across both seasons. Ecological risk assessments showed that invertebrates consistently exhibited acute and chronic ecological risk, with fish being the least affected. Human health assessments via Estimated Daily Intake, Chronic Daily Intake, and Hazard Quotient analyses demonstrated that children face significant health risks from paraben exposure, with Hazard index values significantly exceeding the safe threshold of (HI > 1) in most sites across both seasons. These findings are of alarming concern, especially with the high detection frequency of chlorinated paraben. Consequently, groundwater ecofriendly treatment and initiatives must be deployed, especially to underserved settings, as evident in this study.