Nature-Based solutions, climate change, and biodiversity: A systematic review of opportunities and risks

Urban, coastal, and agricultural ecosystems are increasingly impacted by biodiversity loss and climate change. Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) are promoted to tackle these issues, but their interactions with biodiversity and climate processes are still not fully understood.This review aims to explore the reciprocal and multidirectional relationships among NbS, biodiversity, and climate change, highlighting both synergies and trade-offs. A systematic review of the literature using the terms “NbS * Climate change AND biodiversity” identified 107 studies, with 82 directly analyzing these connections. Most studies focused on urban areas, European settings, and ecosystem-based approaches, emphasizing environmental outcomes over social or economic factors. Results indicate that NbS help mitigate climate change through carbon sequestration in forests, wetlands, peatlands, and mangroves, and support adaptation by regulating floods, reducing temperatures, and increasing resilience. However, effectiveness varies, as some NbS offer limited carbon storage or create disservices such as methane emissions, greater heat exposure, or wildfire risks. NbS can improve biodiversity by restoring habitats and enhancing connectivity, but poorly planned interventions—like monocultures or isolated urban green spaces—may reduce their benefits. Climate change also affects NbS performance through droughts, floods, and sea-level rise, while biodiversity plays a role in boosting NbS resilience and multifunctionality. The review emphasizes the need for long-term monitoring, locally adapted and biodiversity-based designs, and flexible implementation to enhance NbS contributions to sustainable ecosystem management amid changing climates.