Effects of rapid urbanisation on human–snake conflicts in a tropical mega-city: Challenges to biodiversity conservation and healthcare systems

• Rapid urbanisation and subsequent vegetation loss intensify human–snake conflicts. • Urban areas report fewer venomous snake encounters than rural ones. • Species richness of encountered snakes peaks at moderate urbanisation levels. • Snake encounters increase with grassland conversion, but not with tree-cover change. • Healthcare provisioning is insufficient in areas with high snake encounter risks. Rapid urbanisation and landscape transformation in tropical cities drives significant losses of natural habitats and generates overlapping zones between human settlements and wildlife habitats, potentially intensifying human–wildlife conflicts. Among these conflicts, interactions with snakes are particularly common and among the deadliest forms of human–wildlife conflicts in the tropics. However, they remain poorly understood in many rapidly developing cities in this region. In this study we used participatory science data on human–snake encounters in the Bangkok region—a rapidly urbanising tropical mega-city in Thailand—to explore how human–snake conflicts vary with urbanisation and to assess the linkage between healthcare systems and snake encounter hotspots. The Bangkok region accounted for one-third of the country’s total snake encounters species during our February 2021–January 2022 study period. Our analysis revealed complex dynamics in human–snake conflicts, identifying urbanisation intensity and grassland cover as major drivers of snake encounter rates and species richness. Recent urban expansion and subsequent grassland conversion tend to escalate human–snake conflicts, suggesting that a compact city approach could serve as a mitigation solution whilst promoting sustainable urban development. Notably, urban tree-cover had no significant impact on snake encounters, suggesting that policies aimed at increasing tree-cover may not affect human–snake conflicts in tropical cities. Areas with high snake encounter risks were not positively associated with availability, accessibility, and capacity of hospitals, highlighting critical gaps in healthcare systems concerning human–snake interfaces. Our study provides a valuable insight to inform integrated urban planning and public health management that emphasise the need to balance development with habitat preservation, prioritises healthcare accessibility in high-risk areas, and promote public education through online participatory science platforms to mitigate human–snake conflicts and enhance ecosystem resilience in rapidly urbanising tropical cities.